Why Do Some Environmental Shocks Lead to Disaster While Others Don't? Lessons from History

Introduction

In today's world, we find ourselves facing an unprecedented convergence of global crises. Climate change, economic inequality, political polarization—these challenges intersect and test our collective resilience. Yet, history tells us that societies have confronted similar threats in the past, sometimes succumbing to collapse while others displayed remarkable resilience. The key question is: What distinguishes societies that thrive in the face of environmental shocks from those that falter? To answer this question, we delve into the insights of a recent study published in Philosophical Transactions B, titled "Navigating Polycrisis: long-run socio-cultural factors shape response to changing climate."

Harnessing History's Wisdom

To gain a deeper understanding of our capacity to cope with environmental shocks, researchers from the Complexity Science Hub (CSH), led by Peter Turchin and Daniel Hoyer, embarked on an ambitious project. They created the Crisis Database (CrisisDB) as part of the Global History Databank Seshat, compiling data from over 150 past crises spanning various times and regions.

Not Every Shock Leads to Collapse

One of the study's key findings is that not every ecological shock or climatic anomaly results in societal collapse. Some societies exhibit resilience, maintaining essential functions or even achieving positive change through systemic reforms. This begs the question: What factors differentiate collapse from positive adaptation?

Divergent Historical Experiences

The researchers illustrate the divergent dynamics experienced by past societies through three case studies:

• Monte Albán, Mexico: In the 9th century, extreme drought hit the Zapotec hilltop settlement of Monte Albán, leading to its abandonment. However, this wasn't a societal collapse but rather a reorientation, with former residents resettling in smaller communities nearby, preserving many aspects of their society.
• Qing Dynasty, China: The Qing Dynasty weathered recurrent floods, droughts, and locust swarms during their early reign. However, by the 19th century, social pressures had built up, resulting in the Taiping Rebellion and its eventual collapse in 1912.
• Ottoman Empire: The Ottoman Empire faced environmental challenges, including droughts and the Little Ice Age, during the 16th century. Despite social unrest and rebellions, they maintained key structures and ruled for several more centuries.

A Generalizable Approach

The researchers stress the importance of examining the responses of multiple societies affected by a particular climate regime. By doing so, they can identify causal influences and overall effectiveness of environmental stressors across different regions and time periods.

Understanding the Complex Dynamics

According to Peter Turchin, a crisis's course depends on numerous factors, with environmental forces interacting with cultural, political, and economic dynamics. This complexity necessitates a deeper understanding of these dynamics to fathom societal responses to environmental shocks.

Reducing Social Inequality

One crucial finding from the study is that slowly evolving structural forces, such as increasing social inequality, can erode social resilience. Societal cohesion becomes vital in dealing with large-scale threats, as demonstrated by the COVID-19 pandemic. Cohesive societies implemented necessary measures more effectively. In today's era marked by ecological shocks, economic disruptions, inequality, and conflicts, reducing these structural pressures should be a focus to build resilience.

Conclusion

The study "Navigating Polycrisis" underscores the importance of learning from history to navigate the complex challenges of our time. It reveals that environmental shocks do not have a predetermined societal response; instead, cultural, political, and economic dynamics play pivotal roles. By harnessing the lessons from history and addressing structural pressures, we can enhance our resilience to contemporary climate shocks and work towards a more sustainable and equitable future.

Scientists Invent Revolutionary and Eco-Friendly Method for Upcycling Single-Use Plastic

Researchers at NYU Abu Dhabi have created a new process that can convert polyethylene-based plastic bags and polypropylene-based surgical masks into carbon dots. 

This innovative method is organic solvent-free and can be completed in a single step. It addresses the pressing issue of pandemic-related plastic waste, which has resulted in approximately 26,000 metric tons of waste ending up in the oceans. Finding efficient ways to upcycle this non-degradable material has become even more urgent. By transforming single-use plastic into carbon dots, which are biocompatible carbon nanomaterials, various applications can be explored, such as biological imaging, environmental monitoring, chemical analysis, targeted drug delivery, disease diagnosis and therapy, and anti-counterfeiting. Unlike existing methods that involve multiple steps and the use of toxic chemicals, this new approach offers a simpler and safer solution.

In the journal Green Chemistry, a study titled "High-yield, One-pot Upcycling of Polyethylene and Polypropylene Waste into Blue-Emissive Carbon Dots" introduces a new synthesis method that efficiently transforms plastic waste into valuable carbon dots. This approach is not only simple and cost-effective but also highly scalable, allowing for large-scale upcycling of plastic waste. A noteworthy aspect of this method is its ability to handle plastics contaminated with organic waste, such as food scraps, which presents a significant challenge for traditional recycling methods. The senior author of the study is Khalil Ramadi, an Assistant Professor of Bioengineering at NYUAD, while the first authors are Mohammed Abdelhameed, a scientist at NYUAD, and Mahmoud Elbeh, an undergraduate student at NYUAD.

Furthermore, the researchers conducted an economic analysis to assess the viability of this synthetic method. They compared the variable costs of the process to existing chemical recycling methods and considered the economic value of the resulting carbon dots. The findings revealed a promising outlook, with the global market value of carbon dots projected to reach $6.412 billion U.S. dollars by 2025, a significant increase from $2.496 billion in 2019. This substantial commercial value justifies the associated processing costs and demonstrates the economic feasibility of the new method.

The extensive usage of single-use plastics, especially surgical masks and medical waste, during the pandemic has heightened the urgency of finding a solution to manage non-biodegradable waste. Moreover, it is estimated that only 14 percent of eligible plastic packaging, which has seen a surge in usage due to online shopping, undergoes recycling, while the rest is disposed of in landfills and oceans, causing significant harm. These materials can be ingested by organisms or fragmented into micro- and nano-plastics, posing threats to terrestrial, marine, and freshwater ecosystems, ultimately endangering human health.

Ramadi emphasized the significance of the newly developed method, stating, "Our team has successfully created a cost-effective and safe approach that can be readily implemented to substantially reduce the release of harmful plastic into our ecosystems. Apart from safeguarding our ecosystems, this method allows for the efficient and responsible production of carbon dots, a versatile nanotechnology with limitless potential applications."

Elbeh expressed enthusiasm for supporting the UAE's Circular Economy Policy and emphasized the value of their project. He said, "We are thrilled to contribute to tackling the plastic waste crisis by generating a valuable product through a relatively straightforward method. We look forward to collaborating further to not only scale up this project but also explore additional developments and applications utilizing the produced carbon dots.

More information: Mohammed Abdelhameed et al, High-yield, one-pot upcycling of polyethylene and polypropylene waste into blue-emissive carbon dots, Green Chemistry (2023). DOI: 10.1039/D2GC04177D. Journal information: Green Chemistry

The Link Between Corporate Pollution and Stock Prices in China

How Social Responsibility and Environmental Governance Impact Public Companies in Shenzhen and Shanghai

In recent years, China's rapid economic growth has led to increased environmental pollution, affecting the country's air, water, and land. With the expansion of industrialization and urbanization, environmental issues have become more critical, and the government has taken steps to address this problem. One of the critical ways China is addressing pollution is through the stock exchanges in Shenzhen and Shanghai, which have issued guidelines for social responsibility and environmental information disclosure for public companies. This blog post will explore the link between corporate pollution and stock prices and the importance of social responsibility and environmental governance for public companies in China.

The Impact of Corporate Pollution on Stock Prices

In the past, corporate social responsibility (CSR) was seen as a non-financial activity, with companies focusing on philanthropy or sustainability initiatives to improve their reputation. However, recent studies have shown that CSR has a significant impact on a company's financial performance and stock prices, especially in the context of environmental pollution. Companies that fail to manage their environmental impact can suffer from financial losses due to regulatory penalties, legal fees, and reputational damage.

In China, where environmental pollution is a severe problem, public companies are under increasing pressure to manage their environmental impact. The Shanghai and Shenzhen stock exchanges have issued guidelines that encourage companies to disclose their environmental practices, including their pollution prevention and control measures. Companies that follow these guidelines can improve their reputation and attract more investors, which can increase their stock prices.

However, companies that fail to follow these guidelines and continue to pollute the environment may suffer from negative consequences, including lower stock prices. Investors are becoming more aware of the impact of pollution on a company's financial performance, and many are choosing to divest from companies that fail to manage their environmental impact. This trend is likely to continue as public awareness of environmental issues grows, and governments around the world implement stricter environmental regulations.

The Importance of Social Responsibility and Environmental Governance

Public companies in China have a responsibility to manage their environmental impact, and they can benefit from doing so. The Shanghai and Shenzhen stock exchanges have issued guidelines that encourage companies to undertake corporate environmental protection investment (CEPI), which involves using part of an investment fund for pollution prevention and control. CEPI has social, economic, and environmental benefits, and it can improve a company's long-term value by enhancing its reputation and attracting more investors.

Furthermore, companies that follow these guidelines can benefit from increased efficiency and productivity. Environmental pollution can lead to decreased worker productivity, higher employee turnover, and increased absenteeism. By managing their environmental impact, companies can create a healthier work environment that can improve their bottom line.

The guidelines issued by the Shanghai and Shenzhen stock exchanges also encourage companies to disclose their environmental information, including their environmental performance and pollution prevention measures. This information can be used by investors to make informed decisions about which companies to invest in. Companies that are transparent about their environmental practices are more likely to attract investors who are concerned about the impact of pollution on the environment and society.

Guidelines for Social Responsibility of Listed Companies

In 2006, the Shenzhen and Shanghai stock exchanges jointly released the "Guidelines for Social Responsibility of Listed Companies". This guideline is a pioneering initiative in China and aimed at promoting the social responsibility of listed companies, including environmental responsibility. The guideline established a system of reporting the social responsibility of listed companies, including the environmental protection investment (EPI), which pertains to enterprises that use part of their investment fund for pollution prevention and control.

The guideline covers four key areas: company management, stakeholder engagement, environmental responsibility, and community development. It requires listed companies to disclose their social responsibility information in their annual reports, including their environmental protection practices, such as CEPI. The guideline also requires companies to report on the impact of their environmental protection investment on their financial performance and their corporate social responsibility (CSR).

Guidelines for Environmental Information Disclosure of Listed Companies

In 2008, the Shenzhen and Shanghai stock exchanges jointly released the "Guidelines for Environmental Information Disclosure of Listed Companies". This guideline requires listed companies to disclose information about their environmental impact and environmental management practices. It is one of the most comprehensive guidelines for environmental information disclosure by listed companies in China.

The guideline covers six key areas: environmental impact, environmental management system, environmental performance, environmental risks and opportunities, environmental investment, and environmental standards and regulations. It requires listed companies to disclose their environmental impact and environmental management practices in their annual reports, including their CEPI.

Impact of Guidelines on Corporate Behavior

The guidelines set by the Shenzhen and Shanghai stock exchanges have had a significant impact on corporate behavior. Since the release of the guidelines, listed companies have become more aware of their environmental impact and have started to take measures to reduce pollution.

One of the key impacts of the guidelines has been on the stock prices of listed companies. Companies that perform well in environmental protection and disclose their environmental information in accordance with the guidelines are more likely to be favored by investors. They may receive higher valuations and be considered less risky investments.

On the other hand, companies that perform poorly in environmental protection and fail to disclose their environmental information may suffer from a lower stock price. Investors may view these companies as high risk and may be less likely to invest in them.

The guidelines have also had a positive impact on the overall environmental performance of listed companies in China. Companies are now more aware of the importance of environmental protection and are taking measures to reduce pollution. For example, some companies have invested in pollution control equipment, implemented cleaner production processes, and adopted more environmentally friendly technologies.

Conclusion

The guidelines set by the Shenzhen and Shanghai stock exchanges have been instrumental in promoting environmental protection among listed companies in China. By requiring companies to disclose their environmental information and EPI in their annual reports, the guidelines have increased transparency and accountability in corporate behavior.

Furthermore, the guidelines have had a positive impact on the stock prices of listed companies. Companies that perform well in environmental protection are more likely to be favored by investors, leading to higher valuations and better investment opportunities.

Overall, the guidelines have contributed to a more sustainable and responsible corporate culture in China. They have encouraged listed companies to take environmental protection seriously and have helped to reduce pollution levels in the country. As China continues to develop economically, the guidelines will play a critical role in ensuring that economic growth is balanced with environmental protection.

Exploring the Link between Pollution and Economic Growth

Pollution is one of the most pressing environmental problems facing the world today. Not only does it have a negative impact on human health and the environment, but it also affects a country's economic growth. In this article, we will explore the link between environmental pollution and the loss of GDP in a country.

The Impact of Environmental Pollution on GDP

Environmental pollution is a major issue in many countries, and it has a significant impact on their economic growth. According to a study conducted by Chiu and Wu in 2010, environmental pollution causes a loss of 3.5-8% to a country's GDP each year. This means that countries with high levels of pollution are likely to experience slower economic growth than those with lower levels of pollution.

Air Pollution and its Effects on GDP

Air pollution is one of the most common forms of environmental pollution, and it has a significant impact on a country's economic growth. According to the 2018 Global Environmental Performance Index jointly issued by Yale University, Columbia University, and the World Economic Forum, China's environmental performance ranks 120th out of 180 economies, with air quality being a major concern. In terms of PM2.5 comprehensive evaluations, China ranks fourth to last.

The negative impact of air pollution on a country's economy can be attributed to several factors. For instance, air pollution can lead to increased healthcare costs, as more people are likely to suffer from respiratory problems and other illnesses. Additionally, air pollution can reduce worker productivity, as workers who are exposed to high levels of pollution are more likely to take sick leave or experience reduced cognitive function.

Water Pollution and its Effects on GDP

Water pollution is another major form of environmental pollution that has a significant impact on a country's economic growth. In many developing countries, water pollution is a major issue, and it can have a negative impact on the agricultural sector. For instance, polluted water can lead to reduced crop yields, which can result in lower income for farmers and a decrease in the country's GDP.

Furthermore, water pollution can also lead to increased healthcare costs, as people who drink contaminated water are more likely to suffer from waterborne diseases. This can lead to increased healthcare spending and a decrease in overall economic growth.

Conclusion

In conclusion, environmental pollution is a major issue that can have a significant impact on a country's economic growth. Air pollution and water pollution are two of the most common forms of pollution, and they can lead to a range of negative economic effects. Governments and businesses need to take steps to reduce pollution levels to ensure that economic growth is not adversely affected. By implementing sustainable development practices, such as investing in renewable energy, reducing waste, and promoting environmental awareness, we can create a cleaner, healthier, and more prosperous future for everyone.

Uncovering a New Pathway for Electrons in Photosynthesis: Implications for Renewable Energy

Photosynthesis is the process by which plants convert sunlight into chemical energy in order to grow and thrive. For years, scientists have been fascinated by the complexity of photosynthesis, and have been studying it in detail to better understand how it works. Recently, researchers have discovered a new pathway for electrons in photosynthesis, which could have significant implications for the development of renewable energy sources.

Traditionally, it was believed that photosynthesis only used two pathways to transfer energy: one for the transfer of light energy, and another for the transfer of electrons. However, researchers from the University of Sheffield have discovered a third pathway that is used to transfer electrons between the two main pathways. This discovery has the potential to significantly increase the efficiency of photosynthesis, and could also be used to develop new renewable energy sources.

The researchers found that this new pathway works by allowing electrons to move in a specific direction, from the "donor" to the "acceptor". This directional flow of electrons is crucial for the efficient transfer of energy, and could be used to design new materials that are more efficient at converting sunlight into energy.

One of the most exciting potential applications of this discovery is in the field of renewable energy. Solar power is a promising source of renewable energy, but current technologies are not as efficient as they could be. By using the knowledge gained from this new discovery, scientists could develop more efficient solar panels that are better at converting sunlight into electricity.

The discovery of this new pathway could also have implications for other areas of energy production. For example, it could be used to develop new forms of biofuels that are more efficient at converting plant matter into fuel. This could help to reduce our dependence on fossil fuels and lower carbon emissions.

Overall, the discovery of the new pathway for electrons in photosynthesis is a significant breakthrough that has the potential to revolutionize the way we produce and use energy. By understanding the intricacies of photosynthesis, scientists can develop new materials and technologies that are more efficient and sustainable, and that can help us to meet our energy needs while protecting the environment.

Global Trends in PM2.5 Levels: Surges and Declines over the Past Two Decades

Over the past two decades, the levels of PM2.5, a type of air pollutant that is harmful to human health, have been a major concern for many countries and regions around the world. While some regions have made significant progress in reducing their levels of PM2.5, others have seen a surge in these levels, leading to serious health consequences for their populations.

One region that has experienced a significant surge in PM2.5 levels is South Asia, which includes countries such as India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. Rapid urbanization, industrialization, and the burning of fossil fuels for energy production have led to high levels of air pollution in many of these countries. The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that India has some of the highest levels of PM2.5 in the world, with many cities exceeding the recommended levels of exposure.

Another region that has seen a surge in PM2.5 levels is Sub-Saharan Africa. As many countries in the region continue to experience high rates of population growth, demand for energy is also increasing, leading to increased use of fossil fuels and resulting in high levels of air pollution. The WHO reports that several cities in the region have PM2.5 levels that exceed the recommended exposure levels.

In contrast, some regions of the world have made significant progress in reducing their levels of PM2.5 over the past two decades. For example, the European Union (EU) has implemented a range of policies and regulations to reduce air pollution, including stricter emissions standards for vehicles and power plants, and the promotion of renewable energy sources. As a result, many countries in the EU have seen significant reductions in their levels of PM2.5.

Similarly, North America has also made progress in reducing PM2.5 levels, thanks to the implementation of policies such as the Clean Air Act in the United States and the Air Quality Management System in Canada. As a result, many cities in North America have seen significant improvements in air quality over the past two decades.

In conclusion, the levels of PM2.5 in different regions of the world vary widely, with some regions experiencing a surge in these levels, while others have seen a decline. While many countries and regions have implemented policies and regulations to reduce air pollution, there is still much work to be done to address this global health issue. By working together to reduce emissions and promote renewable energy sources, we can help to ensure that everyone around the world can breathe clean air and enjoy good health.

WHO Safe Levels of PM2.5 and Global Exposure: Understanding the Impact of Air Pollution

The World Health Organization (WHO) has established safe levels for the concentration of fine particulate matter, known as PM2.5. These are tiny particles in the air that can penetrate deep into the lungs and cause respiratory and cardiovascular problems. The WHO guidelines state that the safe level for PM2.5 is an annual average of 10 micrograms per cubic meter (μg/m3), and a 24-hour average of 25 μg/m3. However, many people around the world are still exposed to levels above these limits, with significant health consequences.

PM2.5 is produced by a range of human activities, including burning fossil fuels, industrial processes, and transportation. Natural sources such as wildfires and dust storms can also contribute to PM2.5 levels. The particles are so small that they are invisible to the naked eye, but they can have a significant impact on human health. When inhaled, PM2.5 particles can travel deep into the lungs and enter the bloodstream, causing inflammation, damage to lung tissue, and increased risk of heart disease and stroke.

According to the WHO, around 7 million people die each year as a result of exposure to air pollution, with PM2.5 being a significant contributor to these deaths. Many more people suffer from respiratory and cardiovascular diseases that are linked to air pollution, leading to a significant burden on healthcare systems worldwide.

Despite the serious health consequences of exposure to PM2.5, many people around the world are still exposed to levels above the WHO safe limits. In fact, according to a 2020 report by the State of Global Air project, 91% of the world's population lives in areas where PM2.5 levels exceed the WHO guidelines. This includes both urban and rural areas, with the highest concentrations of PM2.5 found in low- and middle-income countries.

The report found that in 2019, the global average concentration of PM2.5 was 24 μg/m3, well above the WHO safe level. The highest levels of PM2.5 were found in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, with annual average concentrations of 69 μg/m3 and 40 μg/m3, respectively. In comparison, North America had an annual average concentration of 8.3 μg/m3, while Europe had an average of 14 μg/m3.

While many countries have made progress in reducing PM2.5 levels in recent years, there is still much work to be done to ensure that everyone has access to clean air. The WHO recommends a range of interventions to reduce air pollution, including improving public transportation, increasing access to clean energy sources, and promoting active transport such as cycling and walking. In addition, policies and regulations are needed to limit emissions from industry and transportation.

In conclusion, the WHO safe levels for PM2.5 are an annual average of 10 μg/m3 and a 24-hour average of 25 μg/m3. However, many people around the world are still exposed to levels above these limits, with significant health consequences. It is essential that governments and individuals take action to reduce air pollution and ensure that everyone has access to clean air. By doing so, we can reduce the burden of respiratory and cardiovascular disease and improve the overall health and wellbeing of people worldwide.

Understanding PM2.5: Why Studying its Levels is Crucial for Our Health and Environment

The Importance of Assessing Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5) Concentrations and its Effects on Public Health

Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) refers to tiny airborne particles with a diameter of 2.5 micrometers or less. These particles are so small that they can easily penetrate the respiratory system and reach deep into the lungs, causing a range of health issues. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), exposure to PM2.5 is a major environmental risk to human health, causing around 4.2 million premature deaths worldwide every year.

PM2.5 is generated from various sources, including transportation, industrial activities, construction sites, and burning of fossil fuels. Once released into the air, these particles can remain suspended for long periods and travel over long distances. As a result, PM2.5 pollution is a global issue that affects people in both developed and developing countries.

Studying PM2.5 levels in the environment is crucial for understanding the impacts of air pollution on public health and the environment. It helps us to identify the sources of pollution and develop effective mitigation strategies. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in studying PM2.5 levels due to the alarming increase in air pollution and its adverse effects on human health.

The Monash University recently conducted a pioneering study on the levels of daily ambient fine particulate matter (PM2.5) around the world. The study revealed that just 0.18% of the global land area and a mere 0.001% of the world's population are exposed to levels of PM2.5 that are below the safety limits recommended by the WHO. These findings highlight the urgent need to address the issue of air pollution and its impacts on human health.

The impacts of exposure to PM2.5 on human health are numerous and varied. Short-term exposure to high levels of PM2.5 can cause respiratory and cardiovascular problems, such as coughing, wheezing, and shortness of breath. Long-term exposure to PM2.5 has been linked to chronic health issues such as lung cancer, stroke, and heart disease. Children, pregnant women, and the elderly are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of PM2.5.

In addition to its effects on human health, PM2.5 also has significant impacts on the environment. It can contribute to climate change, reduce visibility, and damage crops and other vegetation. It also contributes to the formation of acid rain, which can have severe consequences for aquatic ecosystems.

To address the issue of PM2.5 pollution, governments and organizations around the world are taking various measures to reduce emissions and improve air quality. These measures include increasing the use of renewable energy sources, promoting the use of public transportation, implementing stricter regulations on emissions from industrial activities and transportation, and educating the public on the health impacts of air pollution.

In conclusion, PM2.5 pollution is a global issue that affects the health and well-being of millions of people worldwide. Studying its levels in the environment is crucial for understanding the impacts of air pollution on public health and the environment. It helps us to identify the sources of pollution and develop effective mitigation strategies. Governments and organizations must continue to take decisive actions to reduce PM2.5 emissions and improve air quality to protect the health and well-being of current and future generations.

Nearly every corner of the world is exposed to hazardous daily air pollution, according to a global study

A recent study on daily ambient fine particulate matter (PM2.5) has revealed that WHO safe levels are only met for a mere 0.001% of the world's population.

The Monash University conducted a pioneering study on the levels of daily ambient fine particulate matter (PM2.5) around the world. The study revealed that just 0.18% of the global land area and a mere 0.001% of the world's population are exposed to levels of PM2.5 that are below the safety limits recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO).

It is noteworthy that while Europe and North America have seen a decline in PM2.5 levels over the past two decades, Southern Asia, Australia, New Zealand, Latin America, and the Caribbean have experienced a surge in levels. Shockingly, over 70% of days worldwide show PM2.5 levels exceeding the safety limits.

Due to the scarcity of pollution monitoring stations worldwide, the lack of data on local, national, regional, and global PM2.5 exposure has been a challenge. However, Professor Yuming Guo from the Monash University School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine led this study and published the findings in Lancet Planetary Health. This study has provided a map illustrating how PM2.5 levels have altered globally over the past decades.

A research team led by Professor Guo used various methods to estimate the levels of PM2.5 concentrations across the globe. They combined traditional air quality monitoring observations, satellite-based meteorological and air pollution detectors, statistical and machine learning methods to generate daily PM2.5 concentrations at a high spatial resolution of approximately 10km ×10km for global grid cells from 2000-2019. The focus of their study was to assess areas above 15 μg/m³ which is the safe limit set by WHO, although this limit is still subject to debate.

The results of the study showed that annual PM2.5 concentration and high PM2.5 exposed days decreased in Europe and northern America, while exposures increased in southern Asia, Australia and New Zealand, and Latin America and the Caribbean. However, despite a slight decrease in high PM2.5 exposed days globally, over 70% of days still had PM2.5 concentrations higher than the WHO safe limit of 15 μg/m³. In southern and eastern Asia, more than 90% of days had daily PM2.5 concentrations higher than the safe limit.

The study also found that Australia and New Zealand had a marked increase in the number of days with high PM2.5 concentrations in 2019. Globally, the annual average PM2.5 concentration from 2000 to 2019 was 32.8 µg/m3, with the highest PM2.5 concentrations in Eastern Asia and Southern Asia, followed by northern Africa. The lowest annual PM2.5 concentrations were found in Australia and New Zealand, other regions in Oceania, and southern America.

The study also observed different seasonal patterns of unsafe PM2.5 concentrations, such as in Northeast China and North India during their winter months (December, January, and February), and in eastern areas of northern America during its summer months (June, July, and August). The study also recorded relatively high PM2.5 air pollution in South America during August and September, and from June to September in sub-Saharan Africa.

The researchers highlighted the importance of their study, stating that it provides a deep understanding of the current state of outdoor air pollution and its impacts on human health. With this information, policymakers, public health officials, and researchers can better assess the short-term and long-term health effects of air pollution and develop air pollution mitigation strategies.

Reference:

Wenhua Yu, Tingting Ye, Yiwen Zhang, Rongbin Xu, Yadong Lei, Zhuying Chen, Zhengyu Yang, Yuxi Zhang, Jiangning Song, Xu Yue, Shanshan Li, Yuming Guo. Global estimates of daily ambient fine particulate matter concentrations and unequal spatiotemporal distribution of population exposure: a machine learning modelling study. The Lancet Planetary Health, 2023; 7 (3): e209 DOI: 10.1016/S2542-5196(23)00008-6

Can Science and Technology Stop Global Warming?

Global warming is one of the biggest challenges facing our planet today. It is caused by the increase in greenhouse gas emissions, primarily from human activities such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation. The consequences of global warming include rising sea levels, more frequent and severe natural disasters, and harm to ecosystems and human health. Can science and technology help us stop global warming? In this article, we will explore some of the ways in which science and technology are being used to combat climate change.

Renewable Energy

One of the most promising ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions is to shift away from fossil fuels and towards renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, and geothermal power. Advances in technology have made these sources of energy more affordable and efficient, and they now provide a significant portion of the world's electricity.

In addition, research is ongoing to develop new technologies that can improve the efficiency of renewable energy sources and make them even more competitive with fossil fuels. For example, researchers are exploring the use of new materials, such as perovskite, to make solar cells more efficient, as well as new wind turbine designs that can generate more power with less space.

Carbon Capture and Storage

Another promising technology is carbon capture and storage (CCS), which involves capturing carbon dioxide emissions from power plants and other industrial sources and storing them underground or in other long-term storage facilities. While CCS is still in its early stages, it has the potential to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions from these sources.

In addition, research is ongoing to develop new and more efficient methods for capturing and storing carbon dioxide. For example, researchers are exploring the use of new materials, such as metal-organic frameworks, that can capture carbon dioxide more effectively and efficiently than existing technologies.

Climate Engineering

Another controversial approach to combating climate change is climate engineering, which involves deliberate, large-scale interventions in the Earth's climate system to reduce global warming. Some proposed techniques include reflecting more sunlight back into space, increasing the reflectivity of clouds, and fertilizing the ocean to promote the growth of phytoplankton, which absorb carbon dioxide.

While these approaches are still in the experimental stage and are not without risks and potential unintended consequences, they could potentially provide a way to mitigate the worst effects of global warming.

Conclusion

Science and technology have the potential to play a significant role in stopping global warming. From developing new renewable energy technologies to capturing and storing carbon dioxide emissions to exploring controversial climate engineering techniques, researchers are working hard to find ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate the effects of global warming.

However, while science and technology can provide solutions to many of the challenges we face, they are not a panacea. It will also require policy changes, public awareness and engagement, and a commitment to sustainable living from individuals and governments around the world. By working together, we can use science and technology to create a more sustainable future for ourselves and future generations.

Exploring the Depths: An Overview of the Mariana Trench

The Mariana Trench is the deepest location on Earth, located in the Pacific Ocean. It is part of a network of deep troughs that form when two tectonic plates collide. The trench was created by the process that occurs in a subduction zone. The United States has jurisdiction over the trench and its resources according to the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). Scientists use various technologies to explore and study this unique environment.

Location and size of the Mariana Trench

The Mariana Trench is located in the western Pacific Ocean, about 200 kilometers (124 miles) east of the Mariana Islands. It is a crescent-shaped scar in the Earth's crust that measures more than 1,500 miles (2,550 kilometers) long and 43 miles (69 kilometers) wide on average. The trench stretches for more than 1,580 miles (2,540 km) with a mean width of 43 miles (69 km). The maximum known depth of the Mariana Trench is 10,915 meters (35,810 feet), recorded by the surface ship M.V. Spencer F. Baird using precision depth gauges in 1962. In 1984, the Japanese survey vessel Takuyō collected data from the Mariana Trench using a narrow multi-beam echo sounder and reported a maximum depth of 10,924 meters (35,840 feet), also reported as 10,920 ± 10 meters (35,827 ± 33 feet).

The deepest location on Earth is the Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench which is approximately seven miles deep or about 11,034 meters (36,201 feet) deep. If Mount Everest were placed at the bottom of Challenger Deep it would be completely submerged with over a mile of water above it.

The Mariana Trench is the deepest part of the ocean, and it has been a subject of interest for oceanographers and scientists for many years. The trench is more than 7 miles (11 kilometers) deep, and it is a toxic environment where only some creatures can thrive. The Mariana Trench is often used as a North-South passage by submarines as it is part of a long system of trenches that circle the Pacific Ocean.

The Mariana Trench has been declared a protected marine reserve since 2009, which includes the Marianas Trench Marine National Monument. Fishing and mining are now barred in that area. Scientists are studying the trench and coral reef ecosystems in the surrounding areas to learn more about tropical marine ecosystems.

Researchers hope to systematically explore large swaths of the world's deepest trenches to get a more complete view of what is found there. Such work has been published as an open access report by Zhang et al., who discovered genome reduction in Psychromonas species within the gut of an amphipod from the Ocean’s deepest point. The proposed Mariana Trench Marine National Monument in the Commonwealth of Northern Mariana Islands could provide key answers about Earth's deepest ocean.

Fascinating Facts about the Mariana Trench

The Mariana Trench is the deepest part of the Earth's oceans, with a depth of more than 7 miles (11 kilometers). It is located in the western Pacific and formed where two tectonic plates collide, creating a valley that has no equal on our planet. The seafloor in the west Pacific is 180 million years old, some of the oldest in the world. This ancient crust contains thin plates that float on molten rock (mantle). Sometimes these plates crash into each other, which causes one plate to plunge into the mantle while the other rides over the top.

The Mariana Trench is home to some of the strangest creatures ever discovered on planet earth. Some of these creatures include deep-sea amoebas, shrimp-like creatures, sea cucumbers, xenophyophores, amphipods, small sea cucumbers (holothurians), snailfish, goblin sharks, deep-sea dragonfish, barreleye fish, benthocodon and seadevil anglerfish. These animals live in complete darkness and extreme pressure consuming chemicals like methane or sulfur or those produced by other organisms for survival.

The Mariana Trench is an incredibly hostile environment due to its high pressure and lack of sunlight. However, it is also a unique ecosystem with many species that have adapted to survive in this extreme environment. Studying these creatures can help us understand how life can exist in such harsh conditions and may lead to new discoveries about life on Earth and beyond.

The Mariana Trench, located in the Western Pacific near Guam, is the deepest place on earth and has been the focus of high-profile voyages to conquer its deepest point, Challenger Deep. In recent years, several expeditions have explored the trench and its ecosystem. The Hadal Ecosystem Studies (HADES) expedition led by co-chief scientists Drs. Jeff Drazen and Patty Fryer of the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa’s School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST) was the first detailed study of the Mariana Trench aboard Schmidt Ocean Institute’s R/V Falkor. The expedition targeted multiple depths and found active thriving communities of animals. It set many new records such as the deepest rock samples ever collected and new species including the deepest fish ever recorded.

In May 2019, Victor Vescovo broke a record for reaching the deepest point in the Mariana Trench with his submersible DSV Limiting Factor. During his dive, he discovered plastic waste on the seafloor. In addition to exploring Challenger Deep, dives have also taken place in other deep-sea trenches such as Puerto Rico Trench in Atlantic Ocean, South Sandwich Trench in Southern Ocean, and Java Trench in Indian Ocean.

The Mariana Trench is more than 7 miles (11 kilometers) deep[4]. Gardner et al. (2014) provided an accurate measurement of depth for Challenger Deep using a combination of satellite altimetry data and direct measurements from sonar soundings made by research vessels. Greenaway et al. (2021) revised this depth using submersible transects to provide a more precise measurement.

The Many Benefits of Waste Recycling

Recycling is an important part of sustainable materials management, which emphasizes the productive and sustainable use of materials across their entire life cycle. Recycling helps protect the environment by conserving resources, reducing waste, slowing climate change and minimizing environmental pollution. It also has economic benefits, creating jobs and generating local and state tax revenues.

Recycling is an important activity that can help reduce waste sent to landfills, conserve natural resources, and lower greenhouse gas emissions. Recycling conserves energy, reduces air and water pollution, and conserves natural resources. By reusing aluminum, paper, glass, plastics, and other materials, we can save production and energy costs while reducing the negative impacts that the extraction and processing of virgin materials has on the environment. Recycling also helps reduce greenhouse gas emissions by reducing energy consumption. Using recycled materials to make new products reduces the need for virgin materials. This avoids greenhouse gas emissions that would result from extracting or mining virgin materials. In addition, manufacturing products from recycled materials typically requires less energy than making products from virgin materials.

Environmental Benefits

Recycling also helps conserve non-renewable resources. For example, by not recycling paper, 80% more wood will need to be harvested by 2010 to meet growing paper consumption demands. However, through active paper recycling, only 20% more wood will need to be harvested by 2010. Waste prevention and smart shopping are even more effective at reducing greenhouse gas emissions that result from energy consumption. When we buy less or reuse products, less energy is needed to extract, transport and process materials to manufacture products.

Recycling also reduces pollution by keeping waste out of landfills and incinerators where it would release harmful pollutants into the environment. It helps reduce traffic congestion and the pollution that comes with it by reducing the need for new raw materials. Recycling also helps preserve our history through adaptive reuse of old buildings.

Economic Benefits

Recycling has a range of economic benefits, including job creation, cost savings for businesses and governments, and revenue generation from recycled materials. For example, the 2020 Recycling Economic Information (REI) Report by the US EPA found that in 2012, recycling and reuse activities in the United States accounted for 757,000 jobs, $36.6 billion in wages and salaries, and $6.7 billion in federal, state and local tax revenues. In New Jersey alone, recycling activities generated over 1.3 million jobs and nearly $1 billion in wages. Additionally, businesses can save money by reducing their waste disposal costs through recycling. For instance, a study conducted by the Texas Commission on Environmental Quality found that businesses could save up to $145.53 per unit or $148.69 per ton of waste recycled. Furthermore, recycled materials can be used to create new products which generate revenue for businesses. For example, Bell Atlantic Directory Services invested considerable resources into researching the use of recycled-content paper for its phone books due to its desire to outrun legislation (https://hbr.org/1993/11/recycling-for-profit-the-new-green-business-frontier).

Social Benefits

Recycling waste has several social benefits, including community engagement and education, public health, and impact on vulnerable populations. Recycling programs can contribute to a healthy, united community by preventing greenhouse gases (GHGs) and supporting local economies by creating jobs and tax revenue. Recycling knowledge influences individuals' and communities' recycling behaviors. A community-based solution is one in which the members of vulnerable communities are empowered to participate in and even lead clean-up efforts. Waste pickers, collectors, and recyclers refer to people who make a living by selling recyclables found in trash. They are found in the poorest neighborhoods of cities worldwide. The rise of waste picker cooperatives began at the end of the 20th century, emboldened by democratization and human rights movements.

Recycling programs can also help improve water and air quality. Despite the demonstrated health risks, locating waste and toxic facilities in minority and low-income neighborhoods is viewed as a welcome means of economic development by some. This practice results in environmental injustice that disproportionately affects these communities.

An example of community engagement through recycling is a recycling campaign developed to assess participants’ recycling behaviors, information sources, knowledge, and attitudes about recycling and the environment. Pencil-paper surveys were administered during National Public Health Week at two locations on campus: a student center with high foot traffic near food vendors (location 1) and an academic building with lower foot traffic (location 2). An example of public health benefits from recycling is reducing exposure to hazardous materials that can cause respiratory problems or cancer when burned or buried in landfills. An example of impact on vulnerable populations is empowering waste pickers through cooperatives that provide them with better working conditions, higher income levels, access to social services such as healthcare or education for their children.

Conclusion

Recycling has numerous benefits for the environment, including reducing waste sent to landfills and combustion facilities, conserving natural resources, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Recycling also conserves energy, reduces air and water pollution, and helps to reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials. Additionally, recycling can provide economic benefits by creating jobs in the recycling industry and generating revenue from selling recycled materials. Socially, recycling can promote community engagement and education, public health, and impact on vulnerable populations. Overall, recycling is an important tool for promoting sustainability and protecting our planet for future generations.

Space Debris: The Threat of Orbital Junk to Astronauts and Satellites

What is a space debris?

Space debris, also known as space junk, refers to any human-made object in orbit around the Earth that no longer serves a useful function. This includes nonfunctional spacecraft, abandoned launch vehicle stages, mission-related debris and fragmentation debris. Space debris can be as large as an inactive satellite or as small as a flake of paint. The real danger of space debris is the speed at which these objects move - more than 28,000 kilometers per hour - which makes even small pieces of debris potentially lethal to spacecraft and satellites.

Space debris is a significant problem for space exploration and poses a threat to both crewed and uncrewed spaceflight. The risk of catastrophic collision between space shuttles and pieces of space debris was estimated to be 1 in 300. In the first collision between an operational satellite and a piece of space debris in July 1996, a fragment from the upper stage of a European Ariane rocket collided with Cerise, a French microsatellite. Cerise was damaged but continued to function[4].

Since the beginning of the space era in 1957, tons of rockets, spaceships, and satellites have been launched into space. At least initially, no one foresaw what to do with them at the end of their useful life. The European Space Agency (ESA) estimates that there are some 900,000 objects over one centimeter in size orbiting Earth today.

Size and types of space junk

Space debris, also known as space junk, is any piece of machinery or debris left by humans in space. It can refer to big objects such as dead satellites that have failed or abandoned launch vehicle stages. It can also be as small as a microscopic chip of paint. The amount of space debris in orbit increases with the growth of the space industry on Earth.

Space debris poses a significant threat to the astronauts and spacecraft that work in Earth's orbit, according to NASA. Even tiny pieces of space junk can cause incredible damage because objects in orbit move at high speeds. For example, during an STS-120 EVA to reinforce a torn solar panel, a pair of pliers was lost, and in an STS-126 EVA, Heidemarie Stefanyshyn-Piper lost a briefcase-sized tool bag.

Rocket upper stages which end up in orbit are a significant source of space debris. In characterizing the problem of space debris, it was learned that much debris was due to rocket upper stages (e.g. the Inertial Upper Stage) which end up in orbit and break up due to decomposition of unvented propellants or residual pressure within fuel tanks. By one estimate, there are a hundred million bits of debris that are a millimeter in size and a hundred million as small as a micron.

Threat to astronauts and spacecraft

Space debris poses a significant threat to astronauts and spacecraft. Space debris can damage spacecraft or space stations due to the high speed at which it travels. The rising population of space debris increases the potential danger to all space vehicles, including the International Space Station. Fortunately, at the moment, space junk doesn't pose a huge risk to our exploration efforts. The biggest danger it poses is to other satellites in orbit.

NASA recognizes the dangers of space debris and has an Orbital Debris Program Office that tracks more than 8,000 orbiting objects larger than 4 inches (10 cm), of which only 7% are operational. The rest are debris - dead satellites, parts of exploded rockets, nuts, bolts, other lost hardware, etc. NASA is also working on ways to mitigate the risks posed by space debris. For example, NASA's Restore-L project aims to refuel and service a satellite in low Earth orbit that was not designed for servicing.

Solutions and Future Challenges

Space debris is a growing problem that poses a significant threat to current and future space missions. It is essential to address this issue to ensure the sustainability of space exploration. There are several solutions for managing space debris, including prevention, removal, and mitigation. Prevention involves designing spacecraft with end-of-life disposal in mind and avoiding in-orbit explosions. Removal involves capturing debris or deorbiting old satellites. Mitigation involves reducing the creation of debris from collisions by employing collision avoidance techniques or removing large objects from orbit.

Several organizations are working on addressing the issue of space debris. The World Economic Forum has launched the world's first Space Sustainability Rating, which aims to reduce space debris and ensure that rapidly increasing space exploration missions are "managed safely". Aerospace's Center for Orbital and Reentry Debris Studies (CORDS) is developing tools and techniques that will analyze potential collision scenarios, study reentry breakups of upper stages and spacecraft, and model debris objects in orbit. ESA is working on mitigating space debris generation by preventing in-orbit explosions and applying both prevention and removal measures broadly and in a timely manner.

In conclusion, addressing the issue of space debris is crucial for ensuring the sustainability of current and future space missions. Several solutions exist for managing space debris, including prevention, removal, and mitigation. Organizations such as the World Economic Forum, Aerospace's CORDS, and ESA are working on developing tools and techniques to address this issue.

Uncover the extraordinary rise and fall of Byzantine Empire

The Beginning of Byzantine Empire

The Byzantine Empire began as a Roman Empire splinter called Byzantium, which was founded by Constantine the Great.

Constantine was born in Dalmatia, in what is now Croatia. He became emperor at age 20 and ruled from 306 to 337 AD. His region saw three major achievements; he converted to Christianity; he built Constantinople as his new capital city; and he established Christianity as the official religion of Rome (which meant that all people would have to follow this one faith).

However, the eastern and western Christianity separated in the Great Schism in 1054. This event was caused by a disagreement over the authority of the papacy. The eastern church rejected the pope's claim to universal jurisdiction, while the west continued to recognize him as the head of their church. This led to years of conflict between East and West that culminated in 1453 when Constantinople fell to invading Islamic armies.

The Great Schism led both churches down different paths: while most Eastern Christians continued practicing their religion without any significant changes in doctrine or liturgy. Western Christians adopted many new doctrines through reform movements like Martin Luther's Reformation (1517-1648).

The Peaks of Byzantine Empire

The Byzantine Empire’s peak came under Justinian I (r. 527-565) when he reconquered territory western Europe and North Africa. He also expanded the borders of the empire, bringing it to its greatest extent ever by 715 AD. This expansion was made possible by a powerful army that could fight on multiple fronts simultaneously - an advantage that would prove crucial later on during the Muslim invasions of Constantinople in 673-74 and 717-18 CE. When Arab armies crossed over into Anatolia from lands across Asia Minor territory before marching into northern Syria from Palestine via Antiochia ad Orontem (modern Antakya).

In fact, it was this threat from outside forces that led Emperor Heraclius to turn his attention towards stabilizing Europe rather than continuing eastward toward Persia or India; he did not want another civil war like what happened with Constantine after he had forced Arianism upon Nicene Christianity instead opting for compromise within their faith communities without being persecuted by other sects or factions within society.

During the iconoclastic period, icons were banned and destroyed as they were viewed as idolatry to false gods. Iconoclasts were people who believed that religious icons were idolatry. The iconoclastic movement began in the 7th century and continued until 9th century with some periods of intense persecution by both Christians and Muslims alike.

After losing its Italian territory to Charlemagne's Holy Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire declined from being a regional power to a regional player by the end of the 11th century. The loss of Italy forced Byzantium to turn inward and focus on its eastern provinces. By this time, most of what was once known as "Byzantine" had been absorbed into other empires or adopted by them (most notably Islam).

The Union of Lyons and Florence in 1439 was a major step forward for the Byzantine Empire, as it reunited with Rome and ended the schism between them. However, this union wasn't fully realized due to another schism caused by Pope Eugene IV (1431-1447). Eugene refused to recognize any agreements made between Byzantine Emperor Constantine VIII Paleologus (1341-1391) and his brother John VI Cantacuzenos (1347-1354), so he severed relations with both countries until they could make up their differences in earnest.

The Byzantine Empire had a long history of both ups and downs. This is evident in its history, which includes many instances of success as well as failure. The Byzantine were one of the greatest empires ever to exist on earth; the ruled over much of Europe, Asia Minor (modern Turkey), North Africa and parts of Syria for nearly 1,000 years until they were defeated by Turks at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 AD.

Fewer El Nino and La Nina events in A Warmer World

A simulation reveals possible end of El Nino/ La Nina

Surface ocean temperature (Institute of Basic Science)

The cycling between warm El Nino and cold La Nina conditions in the eastern Pacific (commonly referred to as the El Nino- Southern Oscillation, ENSO) has persisted without major interruptions for at least the last 11,000 years. This may change in the future according to a new study published in the journal Nature Climate Change by a team of scientists from the IBS Center for Climate Physics (ICCP) at Pusan Natinoal University in South Korea, the Max Planck Institute of Meteorology, Hamburg, Germany, and the University of Hawai'i at Manoa, USA.

As the ENSO collects irregular periodic variation in winds and sea surface temperatures, high air surface in the tropical western of Pacific is accompanied by the El Nino, while low air surface pressure is in La Nina. Hence, the team conducted a series of global climate model simulations with an unprecedented spatial resolution of 10 km in the ocean and 25 km in the atmosphere. Boosted by the power of one of South Korea's fastest supercomputer (Aleph), the new ultra-high-resolution climate model simulations can now realistically simulate tropical cyclones in the atmosphere and tropical instability waves in the equatorial Pacific Ocean, which both play fundamental roles in the generation and termination of El Nino and La Nina events. This supercomputer employs two different global warming levels covering present-day climate as well as century-long data, subsequently; two quadrillion bytes of data are generated, which implies enormous dataset.

To analyse this huge data, the team focused on a long-standing problem, which is how will ENSO change in response to increasing greenhouse gas concentrations. Instead of using the temperatures in the equatorial Pacific, west of Galapagos, which are always too cold to the observations, the ICCP team selected small-scale climatic processes at the highest computationally possible resolution. Then, they were able to alleviate the ocean temperature biases, leading to substantial improvements in the representations of ENSO and its response to Global Warming. The results obviously is an increase of CO2 concentrations will weaken the intensity of the ENSO temperature cycle. By also tracing the movement of heat in the coupled atmosphere/ ocean system, the scientists identified the main culprit of the collapse of the ENSO system: Future El Nino events will lose heat to the atmosphere more quickly due to the evaporation of water vapor, which has the tendency to cool the ocean. In addition, the reduced future temperature difference between the eastern and western tropical Pacific will also inhibit the development of temperature extremes during the ENSO cycle.

Even though the year-to-year fluctuations in eastern equatorial Pacific temperatures are likely to weaken with human-induced warming according to this new study, the corresponding changes in El Nino and La Nina-related rainfall extremes will continue to increase due to an intensified hydrological cycle in a warmer climate, as shown in recent studies by scientists from the ICCP and their international collaborators.

Source: Eurekalert

Two Unexpected Common Sources of Pollution in Land: Farming and Mining

In term of ground pollution, most of the people believe that it happens due to the increase of unrecycled waste such as plastic bottle. However, a land pollution does not mean about an area or field that is used for landfill, in which this landfill is filled by mountain of plastic bottle. Such an example happens in New York city, which has 56 kilometers wide of landfill, and this area is considered as enormous landfill. Although this perhaps is one of the biggest waste in the world, the percentage of waste which is just around 2.5% only takes 0.03% of the Americans total area, and even more, in the future this land would be able to be reconstructed. So, what is the real source of land pollution?

The real land pollution is a contaminant that has the ability in damaging the land, in which the land recovery takes a longer duration of time, perhaps centuries, or millenniums. Such this condition is found in the mining activities (copper and alumunium) as these mining generate huge piles of powdered rock, called 'tailings', left behind after the metal has been extracted. Unfortunately, these tailings contain highly toxic heavy metals including mercury and cadmium which are very harmful for living things. For your information, the alumunium mining alone have been generating up to 100 million tonnes of tailings annually worldwide.

The other source of land pollution, well you might have not believed it, comes from agriculture. In a crop or industrial plantations, the needs for growing the crops and plants are not merely from sunshine or the water from the rain, but also the needs for fertilised soils and fertilisers for the growth of leaves, stems, and fruits. In the UK itself, it has been stated that 100 kilograms of nitrogen were used as a fertiliser for hectare of arable land and grassland every year in order to make fertilised soil. Given that the crops that are planted on this soil absorb a small amount of the nitrogen, this nitrogenic fertiliser would be carried by the groundwater which leads to water pollution.

The low-tech solutions to land pollution are the three Rs, which are reduce, reuse, recycle, and these are in decreasing order of effectiveness. The other solution is to use microorganisms such as wood fungi to break down the toxins in oil spills and chlorine pesticides. For the heavy metals, the use of certain plants for absorbing these metals are commonly used as the plants themselves use the metals as one of their metabolite.

Lacewings Insects

Green-lacewings commonly found in the UK

Lacewings are one of insects which is part of the order of Neuropter, which is in sub-order Plannipea. The name is given for its fine, complicated, cross-branched venation of the four wings, which potrays a beautiful, lacelike pattern. These insects are considerably poor, flickery fliers. During rests, they reckon their wings tentlike over their back.

Lacewings perform a complete methamorphosis with four life history steps, and they are egg, larva, pupa, and adult. The eggs are commonly laid on vegetation, and they occurr separately at the end of a long stalk. The aquatic larvae are predators of other invertebrates., and they cover themselves with organic bris as a form of protective camouflage.

Adult lacewings are commonly found in vegetation, usually in the vicinity of surface waters such as streams and ponds. At night, lacewings are often attracted to lights in large numbers. Adult lacewings are terrestrial, and most species are predators of other insects. Some species are important predators of aphids (family Aphididae, order Homoptera) and other soft-bodied insects, and they can be beneficial by helping to prevent those sap-sucking insects from maintaining populations that are injurious to economically important plants.

The most abundant lacewings in North America are the greenish-coloured, commonly known as green lacewings (family Chrysopidae), sometimes known as aphid-lions because of their voracious feeding on herbivorous insects. These lacewings can be quite abundant in herbaceous vegetation near aquatic habitats, and when handled they may give off an unpleasant-smelling odor. Chrysopa californica is a western species that has been mass-reared and used as a biological control of certain species of mealybugs (family Coccoidea, order Homoptera) in agriculture. The brown lacewings (family Hemerobiidae) are another relatively common group, while the pleasing lacewings (Dilaridae), beaded lacewings (Berothidae), ithonid lacewings (Ithonidae) and giant lacewings (Polystoechotidae) are relatively rare groups.

General Understanding of Evaporites

Evaporites are rocks collected of chemically precipitated mineral deposits derived from genuinely occurring brines concentrated to infiltration either by evaporation or by freeze-drying. They form in areas everywhere evaporation exceeds precipitation, especially in a semiarid subtropical belt and in a subpolar belt. Evaporite mineral deposits can form crusts in soils and occur as bedded deposits in lakes or in marine embayments with restricted fill up passage. Each of these environments contains a point suite of mineral deposits.

Bedded marine evaporites comprise the bulk of ancient evaporitic rocks. They form in basins with broad shelves with the intention of play a role as preconcentrators of the brine and permit gypsum to crystallize made known. The surplus brines are able to exit as underside outflow, as leaching through the basin floor, or to draw together in speedily subsiding deeper parts, everywhere eventually halite precipitates. Further concentration brings in this area a infiltration pro compounds with the intention of increase in the lead cooling and hence hurried on the basin slopes.

Clastics and organic topic could be swept into the basin and either dissipate in the brine, form separate laminations, or be swept into the subsurface. Eventually, precipitation tariff catch up with subsidence tariff and the basin fills up, the fill up go up area and with it evaporation losses are cut-rate, the inflow slows down, the salinity of the brine is cut-rate, and a reverse sequence of evaporite mineral deposits is deposited. Beds of a reduced amount of soluble mineral deposits stay on in the lead beds of more soluble ones, effectively caring them from termination. Compressional pressures acting on severely buried salt bodies can deform these into salt pillows and eventually into salt domes with the intention of slice through overlying beds.

Taking A Detour Improves Traffic for Everyone

Alternative routes help us to reduce heavy traffic (http://www.rtd-fastracks.com)

Take the long way home. It seems that commutes to and from city centres would be better if a few drivers took the scenic route. Most drivers in urban areas try to find the fastest possible route to their destination. However, when everyone does this, congestion increases and everyone suffers. If a handful of people took longer routes, they could cut overall congestion by 30 per cent, according to a researcher from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge.


The crowd of a road is affected by certain things, including the population of four-wheel vehicles or more than four-wheel. The additional of different vehicles makes a very big difference. Given that the removal of a couple of cars from during the rush hours, or morning commute could have saved a lot of time for the society.

To perform that, Serdar Colak and Marta Gonzalez, both of them are researchers from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, looked at millions of anonymous location-tagged mobile-phone records and matched them to roads in Boston, the San Francisco Bay area, Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, and Lisbon and Port in Portugal. They noted that when drivers choose the shortest routes for themselves, commute times can lengthen by 60 per cent. Apps that suggest the shortest routes in real time make the problem even worse.

But if a few cars take side roads, congestion reduces, saving each driver up 3 minutes on average. In the future, computers and smart cars could figure out the best way to send everyone, the authors add. Apps that suggest other routes could offer drivers incentives such as a free cup of coffee for sacrificing their time.

Unfortunately, not everyone is convinced that this is the best solution. The real success is not reduce the traffic, but how to invite the individuals leave their car at home and choose public transportation.

Genomes Change With Temperature

Drosophila Subobscura (Photo by Malcolm Storey)

We tend to think of genetic change as a slow process, happening over generations. But, a study published in 2014 indicates a population can adapt to temperature shifts in a matter of days by reconfiguring their genomes. Scientists in northern Spain tracking populations of Drosophila subobscura, a type of fly, observed reversible changes in the frequency of genetic mutations, or “chromosomal inversions” in the flies’ genomes – essentially, parts of the chromosome get flipped around with the seasons, as the weather changes from hot to cold.

In 2011, when a heat wave hit Western Europe, many of the flies still had their “winter genome”. But right after the temperature spiked, they switched to the “summer” variant months ahead of schedule.

The team still did not understand the genetic mechanism responsible for the effect, but study author and evolutionary biologist from the Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona notes a clue that flies carrying the “summer” inversions to deal with the heat wave produced five times more offspring than they would have in ordinary years.